Brinkley’s a Survey of Us History Chapter 29: the Cold War Essay

1) Origins of the Cold War a) Sources of Soviet-American Tensions i) Rivalry emerged b/c of different visions of postwar world * US foresaw world where nations got rid of traditional beliefs, such as military alliances, and used an international organization which would resolve disputes * Soviet Union sought to control areas of strategic influence * Vaguely similar to traditional European balance of power * Churchill also envisioned this b) Wartime Diplomacy i) Tensions began in 1943 b/c of Allied refusal to open second front through invasion of France * at Tehran Conference, Roosevelt and Stalin formed good relationship * Stalin agreed to help US in Pacific once war with Germany was over in exchange for the opening of the second front in France * But, dispute over governance of Poland showed signs of future disagreements being clearly visible * Roosevelt and Churchill were willing to give Soviet Union some of Poland, but wanted the Polish govt in exile in GB to take control again * Stalin wanted pro communist govt to take control c) Yalta i) Meeting of Big Three at Yalta in 1945 * In turn for Stalin’s promise to help the US out in the Pacific, Roosevelt promised Stalin land back that was lost in the Russo Japanese War * Also led to plan to create United Nations * General Assembly and Security Council * Every member was recognized in the General Assembly * In Security Counsel, there were 5 permanent representatives (USA, GB, France, Soviet Union, China), each of which would have veto power ii) There was also a lot of disagreement * One was over future of Polish govt (independent and democratic vs. Communist) * Stalin eventually agreed to allowing an unspecified number of democratic Poles into the govt and consented to hold â€Å"free and unfettered elections† on an unspecified future date * Elections did not take place for more than 40 years * Another was over the future of Germany * US wanted a reconstructed and reunited Germany * Stalin wanted heavy reparations and to ensure a permanent dismemberment of the nation * finally agreed to commission and each Ally given German â€Å"zone† * decision on reparations would be decided at a future commission * and at an unspecified date, Germany would be reunited (but there was no agreement on how the reunification would occur * as for the future of the rest of Europe, the conference produced a murky accord that the establishments of govt’s â€Å"broadly representative of all democratic elements† and â€Å"responsible to the will of the people† * Soviet interpretations of the accords differed sharply from those of the Anglo-American interpretation * In the weeks following, Roosevelt watched with growing alarm as the Soviets raised pro communist govts all over central and eastern Europe and refused to make the changes to Poland as he promised 2) The Collapse of the Peace a) The Failure of Potsdam i) After Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, new Pres Truman decided US needed to â€Å"Get Tough† w Soviets to honor Yalta accords * Truman had little leverage to compel the Soviet Union to listen to him, therefore he was forced to settle with little ii) Potsdam Conference in July ended w/ Stalin receiving increased land w/ new Polish-German border * US refused to allow German reparations from other Allies’ zones to go to Soviets but US recognized new communist Polish govt under Soviet influence * Allied zones would unite as one country (West Germany) and be separate from Soviet’s part of Germany (East Germany) b) The China Problem i) US had vision of open world â€Å"policed† by major powers * But vision troubled by unpopular and corrupt Chinese govt under Chiang Kai-shek (supported by US aid during civil war) who battled communists under Mao Zedong * By 1945, communist controlled  ¼ of the population * Because US didn’t want to support communists, they were forced to support Chiang ii) B/c Kai-shek govt sure to collapse, US sought to create new, Pro-West Japan by encouraging industrial development, lift trade restrictions * Vision of open, united world was giving way to an acceptance of a divided world with a strong, pro American sphere of influence c) The Containment Doctrine i) US no longer sought â€Å"open† world but rather set out to â€Å"contain† Soviet expansion * As Stalin tried to win control over the vital sea routed in the Mediterranean (Turkey), communist forces threatened to overthrow govt in Greece * new Truman Doctrine sought aid for those forces ($400 million) in Turkey and Greece opposing take-over of Communist forces under Soviet influence * its basis was that the US should â€Å"support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressure† * it worked, Soviet pressure taken off of Turkey and Greek govt regained control d) The Marshall Plan i) Sec of State George Marshall 1947 plan to provide aid to all Eur nations (for humanitarian reasons, to rebuild and ensure it could become self reliant again, to create markets for US goods, and to strengthen Pro-US govts against communists) * this included the Soviet Union, but was rejected by them and their Eastern satellites * was accepted by 16 Western European nations * April 1948, congress approved creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration to administer the Marshall Plan * channeled billions of $ to aid economic revival * by end of 1950, European industrial production had risen 64%, communist strength in member nations declined, and opportunities for US trade revived e) Mobilization at Home i) US maintained wartime military levels, established Atomic Energy Commission to continue nuclear research * Congress approved new military draft and revived the Selective Service System * Nuclear weaponry became central place in US arsenal * In 1950, Truman admin. Approved the development of the new hydrogen bomb * A nuclear weapon far more powerful than anything the US used in WWII ii) National Security Act of 1947 reshaped major military and diplomatic institutions * created Department of Defense to oversee and combine all armed services * created National Security Council (NSC) in White House was created * would govern foreign and military policy * created Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to collect information * As Cold War progressed, they also engaged secretly in political and military operations on behalf of American goals f) The Road to NATO i) Truman merged German â€Å"Western zones† into the West German republic * Stalin responded on June 24, 1948 by blockading Western Berlin * Truman, unwilling to risk war by militarily challenging the blockade, responded w/ airlift to re-supply inhabitants * In spring of 1949, Stalin lifted the now ineffective blockade * Federal Republic became govt of west Germany, Democratic Republic of east ii) To strengthen military position US and Western Eur nations in April 1949 created North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as alliance to protect all members against threat of Soviet invasion (12 nations agreed to take part) * Attack against one would be attack against all * Countries would provide a standing military force in Europe in case of Soviet attack * Soviet Union and communists responded by in 1955 forming similar Warsaw Pact g) Reevaluating Cold War Policy i) 1949 saw Soviet Union explode first atomic weapon and collapse of Nationalists in China to Mao’s Communists ii) To reevaluate foreign policy, National Security Council released report NSC-68 saying that the US could no longer rely on other nations to take initiative in resisting communism * US should lead noncommunist world and oppose communist expansion everywhere it existed * Also called for US to expand military power dramatically * Defense budget was now 4 times the previously projected figure 3) American Society and Politics After the War a) The Problems of Reconversion i) After end of war Truman attempted to quickly return nation to normal economic conditions, but problems ensued ii) No economic collapse (many thought nation would go back into a depression) b/c of several things * increase in spending on consumer goods from savings gathered during war * a $6 billion govt tax cut * Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill of Rights) * provided education + economic aid to returning soldiers that further increased spending iii) Problems because of spending lead to high inflation * Caused Truman to sign a bill similar to wartime Office of Price Admin. (OPA) * Inflation also caused union strikes in automobile, electrical, steel, railroad (shut down whole nation’s railroad line), and mining industries (led by John L. Lewis * Truman used military and govt power to stop the strikes (military on railroads, govt on mine workers) * displacement of some minorities and women b/c of returning soldiers to labor * 80% of them wanted to keep working * Postwar society in which many women had to provide for themselves created a high demand among them for paid work * Many went into service sector b) The Fair Deal Rejected i) After Jap surrender Truman proposed â€Å"Fair Deal† to enact liberal reforms * included raising minimum wage, enacting Fair Employment Practices Act, expanding Social Security, a program to ensure full employment through use of federal spending, public housing and slum clearance, govt protection of scientific research, and creating nation health insurance plan ii) Fair Deal opposed by Republican conservatives who gained majority in both Houses of Congress in 1946 elections * Repubs sought to reduce govt spending (get rid of New Deal programs) and economic controls, cut taxes for wealthy, refused to raise wages * Also refused to increase SS, provide more funds to education, or support power projects in West * As inflation soared, Republicans pretty much just told the public to deal with it (Sen. Robert Taft) iii) Repubs wanted to decrease powers unions gained in 1935 Wagner Act * passed Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947 (Taft-Hartley Act) * made â€Å"closed-shop† illegal (a workplace in which no one could be hired unless they were part of a union) * Although it stil permitted â€Å"union shops†, it allowed states to pass â€Å"right to work† laws which prohibited this * Outraged workers and union leaders denounced the measure as a â€Å"slave labor bill† * Truman vetoed it, but both houses easily overruled him * Did not destroy labor movement, but it damaged weaker unions in lightly organized industries * Made more difficult the organization of workers who had never been union members at all (women, minorities, most workers in the South) c)The Election of 1948 i) Truman sought to make re-election about reforms but electorate saw him as weak * Tried to pass reforms leading up to election but they were all struck down by Congress * Didn’t have much support within even his own party * Southern Dems (Dixiecrats) split off and formed the States Rights Party after they became angry with Truman over his proposed civil rights bill * Gov. Strom Thurmond was their Presidential nominee * Progressives also broke off and formed new Progressive Party with Henry A. Wallace as their candidate * Other Dems who didn’t break off attempted to dump Truman in 1948 * The Americans for Democratic Actions (ADA) attempted to persuade Dwight D. Eisenhower to contest the nomination, but he refused * Dems were forced to enter Truman as their nominee ii) Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey and seemed to be in strong position to win, but intense campaigning by Truman and his platform to reduce inflation, help common man, repeal Taft-Hartley Act, help farmers, and his strong civil rights support for blacks allowed him to win Pres * Dems also won both Houses of C d) The Fair Deal Revived i) New Dem Congress allowed for minimum wage increase, Social Security expansion, and housing (National Housing Act of 1949provided the construction of 810,000 homes for low income families) * but were hostile to Fair Deal programs expanding education aid, national healthcare, and civil rights * rejected civil rights bill that would have made lynching a federal crime, abolished the poll tax, and established a new Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) ii) Truman did end govt hiring discrimination, desegregated armed forces * Supreme Court in Skelley v. Kraemer rules community â€Å"covenants† meant to bar blacks from residential neighborhoods were now unenforceable by courts e) The Nuclear Age i) Nuclear weapons viewed w/ fear b/c of threat from Soviet Union * expressed in pop culture, film noir (things such as The Twilight Zone, comic books about super heroes), and govt preparations for nuclear attack (air raid drills, emergency radio broadcast drills, fallout shelters) * but public also awed by technological potential of nuclear power (Dreams of prosperity and unlimited + cheap electricity) 4) The Korean War a) The Divided Peninsula i) Korea divided at 38th Parallel by US and Soviets into Communist North and Southern government of capitalist Syngman Rhee (supported by US) * north had a strong, Soviet equipped army * south had small one that only dealt with internal affairs ii) Nationalists in North invaded S in 1950 in effort to reunite countries * unknown if North asked for Stalin’s approval, but once it began, the Soviets certaintly supported them * on June 27, 1950, US won UN resolution calling for support of S. Korea armies * Russia unable to veto b/c boycotting Security Council at time for their refusal to allow communist China into Council * On June 30, 1950, US ordered their ground forces into Korea * Gen. Douglas MacArthur was to assume command over UN forces there * War was seen as †containment† effort but also as a â€Å"liberation† * After US beat North troops back into North Korea, Truman ordered to pursue the communists into their own territory * Wanted to create â€Å"a unified, independent and democratic Korea b) From Invasion to Stalemate i) Gen MacArthur (head of UN forces) able to advance far into North, but new communist Chinese govt feared American forces and therefore entered conflict in Nov 1950 * UN offensive stalled and then collapsed * Through Dec of 1950, outnumbered US forces fought a bitter, losing battle against the Chinese, constantly retreating ii) Within weeks, UN armies forced to retreat to 38th parallel * Eventually took back land lost and got back to 38th parallel once more * Long stalemate then ensued until 1953 iii) Truman wanted peace and not new world war w/ China * Gen MacArthur publicly opposed peace effort (Martin letter) and was relieved of command by Pres in April 1951 * He believed that we should have attacked China through either an invasion or bombing * He had wide popular support, therefore when he was relieved, there was wide public outrage * 69% of American people supported him c) Limited Mobilization i) War led to only limited economic mobilization, since it had little American military commitment. Govt still tried to control wartime economy in several ways * Truman created Office of Defense Mobilization to combat rising inflation and discourage high union wage demands * These failed * govt seized RRs and steel mills when workers walked off the job in union strikes * Costly strikes followed (especially in Steel Mills) and workers got most of what they wanted as there was little Truman could do and his actions were both rash and ineffective * The supreme court disallowed him from continuing to seize the steel mills because they said he was exceeding his authority * increased govt spending stimulated economy as many thought we were on the verge of a recession ii) Inability of US to quickly end â€Å"small† war led to growth of fears of growth of communist at home and triggered second major campaign against it * public was angry that so many lives were being lost (140,000 dead or wounded) 5) The Crusade Against Subversion a) HUAC and Alger Hiss i) Another â€Å"Red Scare† prompted by fear of Stalin and Communist growth (â€Å"loss† of China, Korean frustrations, Soviet development of the bomb) * many sought to blame US communist conspiracy ii) Anti Communist fervor merged from the Repubs seeking to use anticommunist feelings to win support against Dems, and Dems trying to stifle that issue * Congress created House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 to investigate communist subversion * Created by the Repubs to prove that under Dem rule, the govt had tolerated communist subversion * Went after Hollywood first iii) Public more concerned with HUAC investigation into former State Dept official Alger Hiss in 1948 that revealed some complicity w/ communists * Were tipped by a former member of the communist party that was now working for the Time magazine * He had â€Å"microfilms† of the documents that were supposedly passed by Hiss to the Soviet Union in 1937 and 1938 * He could not be tried for espionage because crimes happen too long ago, but because of the efforts of Richard M. Nixon, he was convicted of perjury and served several years in prison * increased fear of communist infiltrations b) The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case i) Truman began 1947 program to determine â€Å"loyalty† of fed employees * this was partly because of Republican attacks, and partly to encourage support for the President’s foreign policy initiatives * President authorized sensitive agencies to fire people deemed â€Å"bad security risks† * By 1951,more than 2,000 govt employees had resigned under pressure and 212 had been dismissed * FBI monitored radicals (J. Edgar Hoover) * 1950 Congress passed McCarran Internal Security Act forcing communist groups to register w/ government ii) Explosion of atomic bomb by Soviets led to famous Rosenberg trial to find out how Russia had learned of technology so quickly * Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were a communist couple whom the govt claimed had been the masterminds of the conspiracy * Despite appeals and protests from sympathizers, they both died in the electric chair on June 19, 1953 * They both proclaimed their innocence to the end iii) HUAC, Rosenberg trial, â€Å"Loyalty† program, Hiss ordeal, McCarran Act, and international events all lead to national anticommunist hysteria at national, state, and local level * Schools, labor unions, universities, state and local govts, all sought to purge themselves of real or imagined subversives iv) A fear settled over the country of not only communist infiltration, but being suspected of communism yourself c) McCarthyism i) Rather unknown Wisconsin Rep. Sen Joseph McCarthy in 1951 began leveling charges of communist agents in State Dept and other agencies * He claimed to â€Å"hold in my hand† a list of 205 known communists currently working in the US State Department * Within weeks, he was also accusing other agencies * His new subcommittee was at the fore of anticommunist hysteria and partisan politics * He accused many people even though he had little solid evidence d) The Republican Revival i) Korean stalemate and fears of internal subversion led to Dem disappointments * Truman was very unpopular and therefore withdrew from the Presidential contest ii) Dems nominated Adlai Stevenson (viewed as liberal and Repubs saw him as being weak on Communism) * Repubs nominated popular Gen Dwight Eisenhower and VP Richard Nixon (became famous for his crusade against Hiss) * Eisenhower talked of Korean peace, Nixon of communist subversion * Nixon also attacked Democratic â€Å"appeasement†, â€Å"cowardice†, and â€Å"treason† * Both promised to â€Å"clean up the mess in Washington† iii) Eisenhower won election by huge margin & Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress

Communication to mitigate disasters Research Paper

Communication to mitigate disasters - Research Paper Example gger than 1.5 x 2 kilometres because we are unable to adequately control the focus of the map from http://webmap.city.burnaby.bc.ca/publicmap/viewer.htm. On the other hand, the vertical distance from 4788 Brentwood Drive is smaller than 1.5 kilometres whether northward or southward. The relatively short vertical distance attempts to offset the relatively bigger horizontal coverage of the map. On checking, however, the area covered by Figure 1 is about 6.9 square kilometres versus the 7.07 square kilometres implied by a 1.5-kilometres radius from 4788 Brentwood Drive. Based on the formula pi x radius-squared for area, a 1.5 kilometres radius implies 7.07 square kilometres. The website http://webmap.city.burnaby.bc.ca/publicmap/viewer.htm, which is controlled and managed by the Burnaby City government, is developing a menu for estimating the population of a sector of Burnaby. However, the author conducted several hours and days of attempts to estimate the population of the area covered by Figure 1 using the menu and failed. Possibly, the website is not yet ready to execute the population estimation function at the time of author’s attempt to access the website although the website was updated last 17 September 2010. However, if we use the latest edition of the Burnaby Quick Facts that was produced in 2008, the material documented that one square kilometre of Burnaby has a population density of 2,275.6 individuals as of 2006. Thus, it appears reasonable to estimate that the area covered by Figure 1 has a population of roughly 15,702 persons as of 2006. Of course, we can project the population up to 2010 based on the population growth figures but there is no need for us to do that. In a 2004 report, the United Nations Development Programme defined risk as â€Å"the probability of harmful consequences or expected loss of lives, people injured, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted (or environment damaged) resulting from interactions between natural or

Summary Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 25

Summary - Assignment Example On the weaker side it has, Low amount of capital in hand that brings low production capacity. This creates a higher final product prices because of the production capacity and volume. Besides its also has limited distribution channels. The product had a major opportunity in form of large scale sales opportunity because of the unavailability of the product in the country. It also faces threats such as similar product from competitors such as Coca-Cola, which also come with low prices and better sales promotion. These also have larger distribution channels. The product will ride on the market base created by its predecessors. It will also come under the category of premium cola. The packaging will be done in the manner that consumer are use to from the other Redbull brands. Same can and four cans per packet. In order to be at the same level with other cola brands, the price will be between $2.00-$3.00 CND for every can. This will help appeal to the consumers. The main promotional strategy will be use of social media especially Facebook. Targeted consumers will be able to like the page then the page will be redirected to the user’s friends’ pages as a suggested page. This is most effective in terms of cost and target audience given that most of the youth engage in social media. Distribution of the product will be in a similar fashion as other Redbull brands: it will be sold in local convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and bars and

FOUNDATIONS FOR RESEARCH Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

FOUNDATIONS FOR RESEARCH - Essay Example To amend this gap in knowledge about mood disorders in adolescents, it has been claimed that theoretical perspectives should develop from adolescents’ understanding and experiences (Griez 2005: 47). If not, the theorising process will continue to be removed from the perspectives of individuals who have really experienced mood disorders (Wolfe & Mash 2008: 83). The objective of the aforementioned study was to generate a theoretical perspective that essentially represented the perceptions of adolescents who had experienced mood disorders. Lewis (1995:372) investigated, employing qualitative methods, how participants personally experienced mood disorders, how they reached and perceived the label of mood disorder, and how they understood their experiences. In addition, Karp (1996: 91), in Speaking of Sadness, explained the identity-changing process that participants experienced as they eventually viewed themselves as depressed and carried on theorising about their own selves and h ow they acquired their mood disorders. In this paper, a thorough discussion on the different features of the grounded theory method will be provided by presenting an original research article, Meadus’s (2007) study, which contains the grounded theory method. The Application of Grounded Theory in Mood Disorder Research The grounded theory method, according to Straus & Corbin (1990), the goal of which is to form a theory that is closely related to the reality of the adolescents studied was used in the study of Meadus (2007). Through the grounded theory method, theory arises from evaluating the actual statements given by the participants, and is hence genuinely ‘grounded’ in them (Strauss & Corbin 1990: 17). However, the problem in using an inductive research method for mood disorder research, according to Griez (2005: 72), is that it inevitably results in analyses that go beyond the statements given by the participants. Stiles (1993) suggests that participants give relevant information to the researcher, but that the researcher should analyse that data to form a reflective theory. Meanwhile, reflexivity obliges the researcher to thoroughly think about the research process, which involves probing how strongly the interpretations of the researcher fit with the perspectives of the participants (Rennie, Phillips, & Quartaro 1988: 143). The grounded theory method was employed in the study of Meadus (2007) because it allowed a methodical analysis that enabled the creation of a theoretical perspective that was strongly connected to, otherwise ideally representative of, the explanations of the participants. According to Merriam (2009: 30), data analysis in grounded theory is performed using the constant-comparative method in which bits and pieces of data are compared in terms of their similarities and differences. Merriam (2009: 31-32) furthers that part of the data analysis is the identification of a core category. The core category is the central c oncept where all data revolves around and this is used to develop the substantive theory. Emphasis is given on the importance of identifying categories, hypotheses, and theories from the patterns seen among the relationships formed from the data gathered. To better understand the features of a grounded theory, the research of

Dickens hard times resonates with the work of his contemporaries Essay

Dickens hard times resonates with the work of his contemporaries particulary in relation to the effects on the enroaching effe - Essay Example Charles Dickens’s Hard Times presents a unique picture of industrialization and urbanization in 19th century England. The sullen atmosphere of Coketown symbolizes suppressed anger of the factory workers and failure to improve their lives and wellbeing. Surprisingly or not, Dickens’s work resonates with and echoes in the works of his predecessors and contemporaries, who discuss the tragic man-city dichotomy and depict the disruption of human integrity by cities. It would be fair to say that Charles Dickens’s Hard Times presents a unique and profoundly philosophic allegory of urbanization and industrialization, which causes encroaching effects on the lives of English class workers and reinforces the sense of human alienation from everything rational and urban. Charles Dickens’s Hard Times is rightly considered as one of the best representations of industrialization and its disintegrative effects on the lives and wellbeing of English class workers. ... Nevertheless, it is due to Dickens’s repulsion toward dry statistics, rationality, and facts that Hard Times turned out to be an excellent source of truth about the disruptive effects of industrialization on workers. In Dickens’s book, urbanization and industrialization are associated with the lack of creativity and everything humane. The family of Gradgrinds exemplifies the utmost saneness and extraordinary rationality with no tint of feeling or romance: â€Å"No little Gradgrind had ever seen a face in the moon; it was up in the moon before it could speak distinctly. No little Gradgrind had ever learnt the silly jingle [†¦] no little Gradgrind had ever associated a cow in a field [†¦] with that yet more famous cow who swallowed Tom Thumb† (Dickens 1854). Needless to say, those are the products of industrialization, which suppress romanticism and create a sullen atmosphere on Coketown. The name of the city itself symbolizes sullenness and intoxication with rationality. This sullenness, however, is nothing but the sign of repressed anger, which finds no outlet but goes unabated (Colon 2006). The implications of industrial sullenness in Coketown are two-fold: on the one hand, it creates and fosters a claustrophobic atmosphere; on the other hand, it indicates and reflects the growing social dissent in the English work class. Excessive rationality leaves workers beyond the boundaries of improved wellbeing and, at the same time, emphasizes an irresolvable man-city dichotomy. The themes of sullenness and workers’ alienation from the processes of industrialization and urbanization resonate with T.S. Eliot’s The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Green and Fernald (2003) are correct in that both works create a set of metaphors which

Consequences of high incarceration rate Term Paper

Consequences of high incarceration rate - Term Paper Example Research addressing the impact of parental incarceration on children has identified developmental, emotional, psychological, social, educational, and behavioral consequences for these children (Trice & Brewster, 2004). There is some consensus in the literature identifying some of the serious, detrimental consequences for children of all ages who experience parental incarceration. These issues must be identified and addressed as children of incarcerated parents are viewed as a unique, group with special service needs. Number of Incarcerated Parents The Bureau of Justice Statistics in an August 2000 special report identified a total of 1,284,894 prisoners of which, 721,500 were parents. Within this group of incarcerated parents, 46% resided with at least one minor child at the time of incarceration (Mumola, 2001). Of this group of parents incarcerated, 32% reported having more than one child less than 18 years of age (Mumola, 2001) and 37% reported living with their children in the mon th previous to their arrest (Mumola, 2001). In the same year, 2.1 percent of the 72 million minors in the United States in 1999 had a parent in prison, which represents almost 1.5 million children (Harrison & Beck, 2006). Fathers were less likely to report living with their children prior to incarceration than mother, (47% federal inmates versus 73%). Of fathers imprisoned in 1999, reported the child's mother was their primary caregiver 90% of the time where as only 28% of incarcerated mothers cited their child's father as the primary caretaker (Mumola, 2001). Imprisoned mothers identify grandparents and other family members as the primary caregivers of their children 79% of the time (Mumola, 2001). From 1991 to 1999 the proportion of prison inmates who were also parents increased by more than 250,000. The aforementioned rise in female prisoners has also exacerbated an increase in the number of mothers in prison (106% versus 58% rise in fathers). In 1999, it was estimated that 1.4 m illion children had an incarcerate father and 126,100 with incarcerated mother (Mumola, 2001). Johnston, (1995a) highlights that due to the prevalence of intergenerational crime and the risk for children within these families, it is necessary to address the problem within the context of the family as well as the individual. Impact of Parental Incarceration of Children It is clear that incarceration affects millions of families in the United States. The rise in incarceration rates for both men and women has definite consequences for their children. Whether it is the absence of a father or the incarceration of a mother who is most likely the primary caregiver prior to incarceration, there are considerable consequences for children (Mumola, 2001). Children of prisoners struggle with issues that impact their psychosocial development. The stigmatization of parental incarceration is an important issue addressed in the literature as well as the impact this may have on a child's their self- concept and identity development. The separation of a child from their parent due to incarceration may have differential and devastating effects. Kampfner (1995) outlines how maternal incarceration further stigmatizes children and prevents them from having their needs met. Being witness to a mother's

Alternatives to Incarceration Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alternatives to Incarceration - Assignment Example Historically, this has not always been true following some inmates serving time for their third or even fourth time. This shows that the system on itself is not very efficient because any form of punishment should be aimed at punishing and also rectifying the offender. In addition, the idea of serving time in prison has been the norm to most criminals who have previously served time. Some of the incarcerations act as reunions of the offenders with their friends and acquaintances already in there. Adding to the reasons is the increase rate of corruption which make it possible for ‘well of’ individuals serving time in prison make deals with the prison guards enabling them still to run their business and gangs while still in confinement. This, therefore, shows the level of inefficient in the incarceration system. Herivel & Wright (2009) clearly show the level of corruption in the criminal system and who profits from mass incarceration. Economically, the cost of constructing and running these confinement facilities is usually very high. According to Petteruti et al. (2009), the average cost of maintaining an inmate held in state-funded, post-adjudication and residential facilities is $240.99 per day. This translates to huge sums of tax-payers’ money that could be used elsewhere if cheaper and effective forms of punishments were used instead. Furthermore, this act of imprisonment directly results to societal poverty. For instance, the detachment of supposed income earners or bread winners from their family also creates an economic challenge. Those left by the convict must adjust and learn to live without the convict’s contributions. This can lead to increased crime rate as those left behind try to satisfy their basic needs. Besides, the conviction of individuals lowers their chances of resuming their current jobs or even getting any jobs at all leads to a cycle of poverty in the